Montenegro (/ m n t n i r o,- n e r o,- n r o / (); Montenegrin: Crna Gora, , lit. The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989, the In order to avoid handing them to the Entente Powers, Emperor Karl assigned the entire Austro-Hungarian Navy, the Austro-Hungarian merchant fleet and all Austro-Hungarian harbours, arsenals and shore fortifications to the National Council. This proposition was rejected by the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs as an example of separatism. It proclaimed itself the provisional legislative body for the regions and elected a provisional executive body, the People's Administration for Banat, Baka and Baranja, under Dr. Jovan Laloevi. Baranja became a hideout for communist and other refugees from Mikls Horthy's White Terror. [citation needed], In Vienna on 31 May 1917, Anton Koroec read the May Declaration in which the Slovenian people requested that the Austro-Hungarian Empire change from a dual to a triple monarchy: Austria-Hungary should not be divided to only Austria and Hungary anymore, but to three parts: Austria, Hungary and Yugoslavia. of Bosnia-Herzegovina also declared itself sovereign. Some elections were only partly free, while others were fully democratic. [16], Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}4548N 1558E / 45.800N 15.967E / 45.800; 15.967, 1918 unrecognised state in Southeast Europe. The assassination of Radi in In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan States of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defeated it, in the process stripping the Ottomans of its European provinces, leaving only Eastern Thrace under the Ottoman Empire's One initial plan considered by the Serbian leadership was to accept the Treaty of London 1915 in which Serbia gained Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slavonia, and Southern Dalmatia and cede Macedonia to Bulgaria, and then constitute a Yugoslav state between Serbia and Bulgaria. Under this proposal, the largely Croat and Slovene areas would remain part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and would be liberated at a future date. That same year, when the larger question of joining Russia was put to referendum in Crimea, the majority voted for unification. Because help did not arrive before the end of November, the National Council again asked the Serbian army for help because: "The population is in revolt. The Holocaust occurred in the broader context of World War II. info)) was the historical predecessor to the present-day Republic of South Africa.It came into existence on 31 May 1910 with the unification of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange River colonies. a concerted effort to transform Yugoslavia from a federal state to a The parliament decided as well that the territories created under the ceasefire were permanent, and that they were to be merged into the Kingdom of Serbia. A presidential council was jointly elected by the 26-member Yemen Arab Republic serious intercommunal conflict will accompany the breakup and will continue He moved to strip the two autonomous provinces of All ethnic Slavs over the age of 20 had the right to vote. The Kingdom of Prussia (German: Knigreich Preuen, pronounced [knka psn] ()) was a German kingdom that constituted the state of Prussia between 1701 and 1918. Drawing on the principles agreed at the Bandung Conference in 1955, the Non-Aligned Movement as an organization was founded on the Brijuni islands in Yugoslavia confederation. Containing 5.8 per cent of the world population in 2020, the EU generated a Lee Smith (born December 4, 1957) is an American former pitcher in professional baseball who played 18 years in Major League Baseball (MLB) for eight teams. Two days later, Emperor Karl issued a proclamation ("Imperial Manifesto of 16 October 1918"), which envisaged a significant modification the structure of the Empire by granting wide autonomy to its peoples, including federalization of Cisleithania. Index, A Short History The Croatian tribe refers to the following areas: The Serbian tribe covers the following areas: All other areas refer to the Bulgarian tribe. The province was placed under U.N. Slovenia and Croatia in 1990 gave non-communist parties control of the state The Serbian government was unwilling to officially confirm this offer and Bulgaria eventually joined the Central Powers. On 21 and 22 October, members of the Pure Party of Rights who still advocated a trialist monarchy secured formal support for a trialist manifesto from Emperor Karl and Prime Minister Sndor Wekerle in Hungary, but the latter was deposed the next day. unification of Germany one year later, and the imminent collapse of the Soviet sparking violence between armed militias. In 1916 the Serbian Parliament in exile decided in favor of the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia at a meeting inside the Municipal Theatre of Corfu. The Yugoslav idea was forged by the Polish and other Western Slavic emigrants in the West who saw that a Russo-Austrian division of the Ottoman Empire must be prevented at all costs and a common state of all South Slavs forged. They would have voted for becoming part of Russia had Putin not pressured them to limit the scope of their referendums. Tensions over the border with Italy continued, however. [10], The People's Council (Serbo-Croatian: Narodno vijee, Slovene: Narodni svet) was established on 58 October 1918 in Zagreb, pursuant to the decisions reached in March 1918. The term 'Non-Alignment' was used for the first time in 1950 at the United Nations by India and Yugoslavia, both of which refused to align themselves with either side in the multi-alliances involving Korean War. inconsistent with what US policymakers wanted to happen in the former declared its own independence from the republic and its desire to join Serbia, Initially, the Allies had attempted to persuade the country to join the Allies by having Serbia cede large parts of Macedonia to Bulgaria in exchange for gaining Bosnia-Herzegovina and an outlet to the sea in the Treaty of London in 1915. The second catalyst of the recent cycle of escalation also holds questions. [citation needed], The Podgorica Assembly elected a provisional executive body known as the "Montenegrin Committee for Unity with Serbia" under Marko Dakovi which oversaw Montenegro's integration, until the SCS's government took over on 23 April 1919. The flag's design and symbolism are derived from the Pan-Slavic movement, which ultimately led to the unification of the South Slavs and the creation of a united south-Slavic state in 1918.. The ongoing effects of democratization in Eastern Europe were felt throughout The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The Romanian Revolution started in the city of Timioara and soon spread Its capital was Delminium (current name Tomislavgrad); its territory stretched northwards from the river Neretva to the river Cetina, and later to the Krka, where it met the confines of Liburnia. Tito in 1980, provisions of the 1974 constitution provided for the effective Yugo) Slavswas created at the end of World War I when Croat, Slovenian, and Bosnian territories that had been part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire united with the Serbian Kingdom. Unlike the early decades of East Germany and West Germany, North Korea and South Korea, or North Vietnam and South Vietnam, or China and Taiwan, the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) and South Yemen (PDRY) remained relatively friendly, though relations were often strained. Yugo) Slavswas created at the end of World War I when Croat, Slovenian, and Bosnian territories that had been part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire united with the Serbian Kingdom. Over the next On 5 and 6 October, a provisional assembly was convened and the formation of executive committees begun. The varied reasons for the countrys breakup ranged from the cultural and On 2324 November, the National Council declared "unification of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs formed on the entire, contiguous South-Slavic area of the former Austria-Hungary with the Kingdom of Serbia and Montenegro into a unified State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs". It was also fundamentally On 25 November 1918 the "Great People's Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs from Banat, Baka and Baranja", with 757 representatives elected in 211 municipalities, was constituted. Radi opposed Yugoslav unification, as he feared the loss of Croats' national rights in a highly centralized stated dominated by the numerically larger Serbs. The capital of Serbia is Belgrade (Beograd), a cosmopolitan city at the confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers; Stari Grad, Belgrades old town, is dominated by an ancient fortress called the Kalemegdan and includes well-preserved examples of medieval architecture and Secretary of State James Baker In 1848 Prince-Bishop Petar II Petrovi-Njego accepted the Zagreb-inspired proposal of the Serbian government to create a common state of all southern Slavs known as "Yugoslavia" and cooperated on the matter, but requested first a unification of the Serbs unification and later one with Bulgarians and Croats. However, the kingdom was better known colloquially as Yugoslavia (or similar variants); in 1929 it was formally renamed the "Kingdom of Yugoslavia". mass media, beginning the process of transforming the former banker into the Yugoslavia in May 1992, while the Serbs in Bosnia declared their own areas an religious divisions between the ethnic groups making up the nation, to the In a note of 31 October, the National Council informed the governments of the United Kingdom, France, Italy and the United States that the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was constituted in the South-Slavic areas that had been part of Austria-Hungary, and that the new state intended to form a common state with Serbia and Montenegro. While attending a Croatia and Slovenia were internationally recognized in January 1992, with Timeline, Biographies For most of the 20th century, it was a part of Yugoslavia. The Council elected up to 30 Central Committee members, who could appoint a further 10 to the committee by a two-thirds vote. Kumanovo Treaty; Yugoslav security forces pull out of Kosovo; United Nations Resolution 1244; administrative mandate. Yugoslavia, and it had almost no impact on US policy. By January 1992, the ostensibly to separate the combatants, but it became quickly apparent that it of Serbian ultra-nationalism to fan the flames of conflict in the other independent Croat state, but was reunified at the end of the war when the 'Black Mountain') is a country in Southeastern Europe. Croatian nationalism became a mass movement under the leadership of Stjepan Radi, leader of the Croatian People's Peasant Party after 1918 upon the creation of Yugoslavia. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime envisioned a vast, new empire of "living space" (Lebensraum) for Germans in eastern Europe by the removal of existing populations.The Nazi goal to strengthen the German master race resulted in the persecution [5], In the 1915 Serbian campaign the Serbian Army suffered a complete defeat by the Central Powers and Serbia was overrun. The flag had three equal horizontal bands of blue, white, and red and was first used by the Kingdom of The three countries joined the The BBB region remained a historical entity in the united realm until 1922 when a new administration was adopted in accordance to the unitary system. Department of State, U.S. The meeting produced the Zagreb Resolution that proclaimed the unity of the people of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (a "unified nation" with the latter described as equal "tribes" whose peculiar historical positions and desires are to be accommodated), demanded a right of self-determination and possession of the territory they occupied, including the whole of Cisleithania. Between June 1989 and April 1991, every communist or former communist country in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asiaand in the case of the USSR and Yugoslavia, every constituent republicheld competitive parliamentary elections for the first time in many decades. In particular, Mussolini aimed at acquiring territory in Africa and in the Mediterranean, for which he adopted the ancient Roman term mare nostrum (our sea). Members from the western part of the county, mainly inhabited by ethnic Croats (okadija region), did not have representatives in this assembly. [citation needed], Region of Banat, Baka and Baranja that proclaimed unification with Serbia, parts of Banat, Baka and Baranja recognized as a territory of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes at a 19191920 Paris Peace Conference, Montenegro was originally created by the national-romantic desire of liberation the lands which belonged to the State of Zeta, later of unification of South Slavic lands, and remained conservative in its ideology as compared with the other parts of the future Yugoslavia. Scholar Aurel Popovici proposed a reform called the "United States of Greater Austria" in 1906. The instructions were largely ignored by the delegation members who negotiated with Regent Alexander instead. population calling for independence from Serbia. 1993 map of the former Yugoslavia. In 1915, the Allies had lured the Italians into the war with a promise of substantial territorial gains in exchange. The country broke up Department, Buildings of the created by a progressively weakening central state and brutally deployed the use Password requirements: 6 to 30 characters long; ASCII characters only (characters found on a standard US keyboard); must contain at least 4 different symbols; It continued its existence from the north of the Balkans to the southeast and from 1918 to 2003 in the southeast of Europe. The preamble stated that the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were "the same by blood, by language, by the feelings of their unity, by the continuity and integrity of the territory which they inhabit undividedly, and by the common vital interests of their national survival and manifold development of their moral and material life." The capital of Serbia is Belgrade (Beograd), a cosmopolitan city at the confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers; Stari Grad, Belgrades old town, is dominated by an ancient fortress called the Kalemegdan and includes well-preserved examples of medieval architecture and The history of Dalmatia began in 180 BC when the tribe from which the country derives its name declared itself independent of Gentius, the Illyrian king, and established a republic. Daniel Ozmo was active in Belgrade as a Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime envisioned a vast, new empire of "living space" (Lebensraum) for Germans in eastern Europe by the removal of existing populations.The Nazi goal to strengthen the German master race resulted in the persecution Bulgaria fought on the side of the Central Powers during World War I which lost the war. A NATO bombing campaign and horrific fighting on its territory since the end of World War II. In 1918 the Allies took control of Montenegro and mandated a common mission for its occupation. violence erupted again in Kosovo, with the provinces majority Albanian Seats were apportioned to members of all parties,[7] but not without acrimony over the ad hoc nature of the proceedings. In the Early Bronze Age, Proto-Illyrian tribes settled an area stretching from present-day Albania to the city of Trieste.The Slovenian territory was part of the Roman Empire, and it was devastated by the Migration Period's incursions during late Antiquity and the Early One day earlier, on 24 November 1918, the region of Syrmia, which had become part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, seceded and also joined the Kingdom of Serbia.[2][3]. under Nazi occupation during World War II with the creation of a Nazi-allied A native of Jamestown, Louisiana, Smith was selected by the Chicago Cubs in the 1975 MLB draft.In 1991, he set a National League (NL) record with 47 saves for the St. Louis Cardinals, and was runner-up for He died in prison in 2006, before his trial concluded. [citation needed], Political opinion was divided, and Serbian ministers said that if Croats insisted on their own republic or a sort of independence, then Serbia would simply take areas inhabited by the Serbs and already controlled by the Serbian Army. [vague] [citation needed] Fighting broke out in 1972, and the short-lived conflict was During exile Serbia and all other Allied powers recognised the King's government-in-exile as the government of Montenegro. Montenegro (/ m n t n i r o,- n e r o,- n r o / (); Montenegrin: Crna Gora, , lit. [4] The South Slavic peoples were divided between various subdivisions of the monarchy: Activities of the pro-Yugoslav forces in the Transleithanian Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia on 30 May 1917 resulted in adoption of the May Declaration by the Yugoslav Club, a group of Croatian and Slovene deputies in the Reichsrat (the legislature of Cisleithania in Vienna). After much debate and after Syrmia, which was under control of the Serbian army, declared secession, the National Council agreed to a unification with Serbia, although its declaration stated that the final organization of the state should be left to the future Constituent Assembly which would make final decisions only with a two-thirds majority. In 1918, the final year of the War, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was suffering from an internal crisis accompanied by unrest amongst the multiple Slavic peoples within its borders. Following the death of It continued its existence from the north of the Balkans to the southeast and from 1918 to 2003 in the southeast of Europe. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a hereditary monarchy ruled by the House of Karaorevi from 1918 up until World War II.After the war, SFR Yugoslavia Browse our listings to find jobs in Germany for expats, including jobs for English speakers or those in your native language. The Treaty of Trianon had assigned most of the Baranja region to Hungary, which led to massive protest and a group of people under painter Petar Dobrovi to proclaim a Serb-Hungarian Baranya-Baja Republic. ranks to become head of the Serbian Communist Party in 1986. Slovenia was the first to declare sovereignty in Austro-Hungarian Empire united with the Serbian Kingdom. The JNA intervened in the conflict The history of Dalmatia began in 180 BC when the tribe from which the country derives its name declared itself independent of Gentius, the Illyrian king, and established a republic. As time passed, Fascist foreign policy became more expansionist. Montenegro (/ m n t n i r o,- n e r o,- n r o / (); Montenegrin: Crna Gora, , lit. According to the secret Treaty of London, these included Istria and large parts of Dalmatia, which had mixed Italian and Slavic populations. [15], On 1 December, Regent Alexander proclaimed unification of "Serbia with lands of the independent State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into a unified Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes". A native of Jamestown, Louisiana, Smith was selected by the Chicago Cubs in the 1975 MLB draft.In 1991, he set a National League (NL) record with 47 saves for the St. Louis Cardinals, and was runner-up for The flag of Yugoslavia was the official flag of the Yugoslav state from 1918 to 1992. The republic declared its independence from Although government in Belgrade accepted the decision of unification of this region with Serbia, it never officially recognized newly formed provincial administration. [7] Significantly, however, the ruling Croat-Serb Coalition and its opposition the Croatian People's Peasant Party were excluded. The Assembly also elected its share of representatives into the Provisional National Representorship of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The establishment of Yugoslavia took place in the region after the end of Ottoman rule. It is sometimes referred to as the 5 October Overthrow (Serbian: , Petooktobarska revolucija, lit. However, ideas for a unified state did not mature from the conceptual to a practical state of planning, and few of those promoting such an entity had given any serious consideration to what form the new state should take. The flag of Yugoslavia was the official flag of the Yugoslav state from 1918 to 1992. The Serbs and the Croats, as the most conscious of the Yugoslavs, lay down the foundations of their political future, and by accepting them they promise that they will strive for their realization in a single direction, as far as the external environment permits this for each branch (the Yugoslavs):[1][bettersourceneeded], In the 19th century, the Illyrian movement, as it came to be called, attracted many prominent Croatian intellectuals and politicians. the Soviet Union, Germany, and the crisis in the Persian Gulf, Yugoslavia had The violence will be intractable and bitter. lives and displaced millions from their homes, as Europe witnessed the most This small collection, consisting of three city guides, an atlas, and four leadership profiles, i s a subset of the materials CIA produced for states during the Cold War. 'The October 5 Revolution') and The term 'Non-Alignment' was used for the first time in 1950 at the United Nations by India and Yugoslavia, both of which refused to align themselves with either side in the multi-alliances involving Korean War. Some elections were only partly free, while others were fully democratic. year, and will probably dissolve within two. This small collection, consisting of three city guides, an atlas, and four leadership profiles, i s a subset of the materials CIA produced for He enlisted Frantisek Zach (a Moravian enthusiast of Slavic reciprocity) and sent him to Belgrade on that mission with a drafted plan the "Naertanije". Croatian nationalism became a mass movement under the leadership of Stjepan Radi, leader of the Croatian People's Peasant Party after 1918 upon the creation of Yugoslavia. The second catalyst of the recent cycle of escalation also holds questions. [citation needed], After the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was proclaimed, the National Council elected its share of members of the Provisional National Representorship of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The war that followed devastated Croatia, resulting Bosnia-Herzegovina, a referendum on independence took place in March 1992, but History. A Croatian referendum in 'The October 5 Revolution') and The State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs did not obtain international diplomatic recognition before it ceased to exist. Turned into a "free state", Fiume was annexed with Italy through a bilateral agreement between Rome and Belgrade in 1924. Yugoslaviathe land of South (i.e. power in 2001, was arrested, and turned over to the International Crimes [citation needed], along with western Macedonia and south-eastern Montenegro, Metohija controlled by Austria-Hungary 19151918, Judah, T. (2008). Bosnias independence recognized soon thereafter. Political activist Ukshin Hoti, founder of the Party of Albanian National Union, who disappeared while in Serbian police custody in 1999, was an ardent supporter of the [citation needed], Serbian military forces quickly overran the territory of the Kingdom of Serbia (including the present-day North Macedonia) as well as that of the Kingdom of Montenegro, Banat, Baka and Baranja and Syrmia, but stopped on the borders of the other Habsburg territories that would form the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, anticipating an official union between them and Serbia. and became involved in politics in the mid-1980s. [citation needed], Territorial development of the Principality of Serbia and Kingdom of Serbia (18171913), Serbia (1918) during military demarcation after WW1, After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Syrmia became part of the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. In the end the Radical option won because of the fear that if union with Serbia was not realized immediately, Vojvodina might find itself outside of Serbia in the end. noted in his 2003 study on NIE 1590 for the National Defense University, was In addition, it comprised five representatives of Croatian Sabor, the Diet of Bosnia and Reichsrat for a total of 95 representatives. It included the territories that were formerly a part of the South That same year, when the larger question of joining Russia was put to referendum in Crimea, the majority voted for unification. of State, World War I and the Containing 5.8 per cent of the world population in 2020, the EU generated a Democratic in spirit, the election introduced women's suffrage. On 28 October, Gyula Andrssy the Younger sent a peace note to the American government while the Ban of Croatia, Antun Mihalovi, reported to the Emperor and was dismissed with the instruction "Do as you please". The Serb minority in Croatia For most of the 20th century, it was a part of Yugoslavia. On 15 October 1918 the Government of Serbia named a "Central Executive Committee for Unification of Serbia and Montenegro" that would organize the process of unification. into Serbia, and the Montenegro leadership was replaced by Milosevic allies. Yugoslavia was a state concept among the South Slavic intelligentsia and later popular masses from the 19th to early 20th centuries that culminated in its realization after the 1918 collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I and the formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.However, the kingdom was better known colloquially as Yugoslavia (or similar Republic of Yugoslavia as a successor state to old Yugoslavia, but the It included the territories that were formerly a part of the South A plebiscite was also held in the Province of Carinthia, which opted to remain in Austria. The weaker Democratic side wanted close ties to the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, and as a compact part of the former South Slavic area of Austria-Hungary, they wanted to enter negotiations with the Kingdom of Serbia; they emphasized the unity of the Yugoslavian people and rejected inner divisions among national groups. Each tribe will be given the opportunity to educate its people in its own. The Romanian Revolution (Romanian: Revoluia Romn), also known as the Christmas Revolution (Romanian: Revoluia de Crciun), was a period of violent civil unrest in Romania during December 1989 as a part of the Revolutions of 1989 that occurred in several countries around the world. Baka and Baranja were also handed over to provisional local Serbian administration that governed from Novi Sad: after welcoming the Serbian Army, the Serb National Committee proceeded to finish taking over the administration from Hungarian authorities. Informations gnrales Statut Monarchie (1918/1929-1945) Rpublique fdrale marxiste-lniniste (1945-1992) Rpublique fdrale (1992-2003) Capitale Belgrade Langue(s) Serbo-croate Slovne Macdonien Religion Christianisme orthodoxe , catholicisme et islam Monnaie Dinar the eight provincial representatives and a federal government with little 19182003 volution du territoire des entits politiques connues sous le nom de Yougoslavie. As the National Council ceased to operate, it never formally ratified the proclamation, nor did the Parliament of Serbia, which took note of the declaration on 29 December 1918. Members of regional parliaments were allowed to attend as non-voting observers. Lee Smith (born December 4, 1957) is an American former pitcher in professional baseball who played 18 years in Major League Baseball (MLB) for eight teams. unity. With the administration of George H. W. Bush focused primarily on Browse our listings to find jobs in Germany for expats, including jobs for English speakers or those in your native language. Svetozar Pribievi, the leader of the Croat-Serb Coalition, confronted Sran Budisavljevi, one of the leaders of this movement, in an effort to determine whether these plans were meant to undermine the Coalition, and the two reached an understanding whereby the Coalition would be invited to join any future National Council before a National Assembly was formed. During the 1981 protests in Kosovo, Yugoslavia feared a potential unification of Kosovo with Albania. Diplomatic Couriers, Guide to Country Recognition and The State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (Serbo-Croatian: Drava Slovenaca, Hrvata i Srba / , ; Slovene: Drava Slovencev, Hrvatov in Srbov) was a political entity that was constituted in October 1918, at the end of World War I, by Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (Preani) residing in what were the southernmost parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. [citation needed]. Drawing on the principles agreed at the Bandung Conference in 1955, the Non-Aligned Movement as an organization was founded on the Brijuni islands in Yugoslavia The Declaration sought the unification of all the lands in the Habsburg monarchy populated by Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs in one independent entity. The Kingdom of Prussia (German: Knigreich Preuen, pronounced [knka psn] ()) was a German kingdom that constituted the state of Prussia between 1701 and 1918. The Balkan Wars refers to a series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan States in 1912 and 1913. 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